Localizing Foreign Policy Non-central Governments and Multilayered Diplomacy

During the 1980s increasing attention was given to the growing international activities of the constituent governments within federal systems. To the often dramatic conflicts represented by Quebec's attempts to establish an international 'voice' alongside that of the Canadian federal government were added the quieter, but no less significant, forays into foreign economic policy by, amongst others, the US and Australian state governments and the German Lander. There has been a strong inclination amongst observers of these trends to view them as marking dramatic changes in the character of international relations - perhaps, even, the demise of national governments as power passes to lower levels of political authority. Consequently, the emphasis has been on conflict between central and non-central governments regarding the conduct of foreign relations. A more balanced picture can be constructed, however, by viewing the international activities of non-central governments (NCGs) as one element in an increasingly complex multilayered diplomatic environment wherein policy-makers seek to negotiate simultaneously with domestic as well as foreign interests. By examining, for example, the role of the US states and the Canadian provinces during the Canada-US free trade negotiations, it can be seen that NCGs are capable of performing a diversity of roles at different stages of the diplomatic cycle. Whilst they can be obstacles to the achievement of foreign-policy goals by national governments, they can also act as agents and allies in attaining objectives.